Norway’s Strategic Interests in a Changing Polar Order

Norway’s Antarctic territories, Queen Maud Land and Peter I Island, anchor its identity as a polar nation, bridging a century of exploration with twenty-first-century geopolitics. Together spanning over 2.7 million square kilometres, these territories reflect Norway’s longstanding commitment to peaceful scientific engagement, environmental stewardship, and multilateral cooperation under the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). In an era of mounting climate pressures and renewed great-power rivalry, Norway’s Antarctic strategy is being tested as never before.

Norway’s polar ambitions emerged during the early twentieth century, shaped by whaling interests and a desire to pre-empt rival powers. Industrialists such as Lars Christensen funded expeditions to map and photograph Antarctic coastlines, laying the groundwork for territorial claims. Between 1927 and 1939, Norway annexed Bouvet Island, Peter I Island, and Queen Maud Land, invoking the sector principle to justify claims stretching to the South Pole. These assertions were motivated not only by economic interests, particularly in whale oil, but also by growing concern over German activity in the region, including Nazi Germany’s 1938–39 Neuschwabenland expedition.

Following the Second World War, Norway worked to formalise its Antarctic interests within the emerging international framework. As a founding signatory of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, ratified in 1961, Norway accepted the treaty’s central premise, the freezing of territorial claims and the promotion of peaceful, scientific use of the continent. Norway had already participated in the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year and later reinforced its presence through the establishment of Troll Station in 1990 and Tor Station in 2005.

Queen Maud Land, Norway’s primary Antarctic claim, extends from 20° west to 45° east longitude and borders the claims of the United Kingdom and Australia. The region is characterised by massive inland ice sheets, mountain ranges such as the Sør Rondane, and thick glaciation exceeding 3,000 metres in places. In 2015, Norway clarified that its claim extended from the coast to the South Pole. Peter I Island, by contrast, is a 156 square kilometre volcanic outcrop in the Bellingshausen Sea, remote and almost entirely glaciated. First sighted in 1821 and annexed in 1931, it remains largely inaccessible, with brief summer expeditions maintaining Norway’s de facto presence.

Norway’s Antarctic territories are administered by the Ministry of Justice and Public Security, though they are governed in line with the ATS and its environmental protocols. Norway enforces strict compliance with the Madrid Protocol, including the prohibition of mining and the requirement for comprehensive waste management. The Norwegian Polar Institute coordinates over thirty research projects annually, with Troll Station serving as a hub for climate, glaciology, and biodiversity studies. Troll Airfield, established in 2005, allows year-round air access, while Norway shares use of Australia’s icebreaker RSV Nuyina.

Although Norway’s claims face no formal dispute, they are situated in a politically sensitive environment. Claimant states such as Australia, France, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom recognise Norway’s sovereignty, while non-claimant powers including the United States, Russia, and China reserve their rights. Article IV of the Antarctic Treaty preserves this delicate legal balance, allowing Norway to exercise administrative control while deferring definitive sovereignty resolution.

Norway’s diplomatic and scientific partnerships help reinforce its legitimacy. Collaborative programmes with the United Kingdom and Australia include joint climate modelling and marine conservation projects. Norway also maintains observer status in CCAMLR, where it supports fishing quotas and the regulation of krill harvests. However, tensions are rising. Russia has conducted seismic surveys near Queen Maud Land under the guise of scientific research, prompting fears of mineral exploration. China’s construction of the Inexpressible Island Station in 2023 has further fuelled concerns over dual-use infrastructure in contested areas.

Norway’s Arctic and Antarctic policies are increasingly interconnected. As chair of the Arctic Council from 2023 to 2025, Norway has prioritised climate resilience and environmental security. These priorities now inform its Antarctic posture, with a focus on advancing climate science and advocating for the protection of marine ecosystems through mechanisms such as the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area.

Scientific research underpins Norway’s Antarctic presence. Norway is a lead partner in the Million Year Ice Core Project, aiming to extract 3 km deep ice cores from Queen Maud Land to reconstruct ancient CO₂ cycles. Subglacial mapping projects, including studies on the Denman Glacier, are revealing alarming melt rates that could contribute over a metre of global sea-level rise. Troll Station also supports bioprospecting initiatives, with EU-funded studies exploring extremophile enzymes for pharmaceutical and industrial use.

Norway regulates bioprospecting within ATS guidelines, although ethical debates continue over the commercial use of genetic resources sourced from Antarctica. At the same time, Norway is transitioning its stations to renewable energy. Troll Station now derives 85% of its power from wind, with similar upgrades planned for Tor Station. These efforts support Norway’s national target of net-zero emissions by 2045 and reduce dependency on fossil fuel shipments to remote areas.

Despite its strengths, Norway faces growing challenges. Ice shelves in Queen Maud Land are thinning by >1% annually. If the Fimbul Ice Shelf collapses, it could expose 100 kilometres of coastline by 2035, with significant ecological and logistical consequences. Meanwhile, Russia’s 2024 “Vostok Survey”, officially described as geological research, has raised concerns over potential hydrocarbon exploration in violation of the Madrid Protocol.

Geopolitical rivalries are adding further strain. China now operates five stations and the icebreaker Xuelong 2, with its activities increasingly geared towards influencing ATS and CCAMLR negotiations. Allegations of military-grade equipment at Russia’s Novolazarevskaya Station have heightened calls to strengthen enforcement of ATS demilitarisation clauses.

With the 2048 review of the Madrid Protocol on the horizon, Norway is playing a leading role in efforts to maintain the mining ban and strengthen environmental protections. Through partnerships with EU and ASEAN states, Norway is building coalitions to resist pressure from revisionist powers. Domestically, it is investing in enhanced surveillance, including new SAR satellites developed in partnership with the European Space Agency, and AI-enabled monitoring of marine protected areas through the Sentinel Initiative.

Norway also participates in the Wellington Group, a coalition of claimant states including Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa. Together, they advocate for ATS compliance and robust environmental governance. Norway is also drawing on Indigenous expertise from Sami communities to integrate traditional ecological knowledge into its Antarctic planning, particularly in the context of climate adaptation and ecosystem monitoring.

Looking forward, Norway is modernising its infrastructure to meet future logistical and environmental demands. The proposed Princess Elisabeth Aerodrome in Queen Maud Land would provide a paved runway capable of supporting heavy-lift aircraft, significantly reducing reliance on ship-based supply routes. Trials for green hydrogen-powered traverse vehicles are scheduled for 2026, part of a broader move towards sustainable polar logistics.